State of the art: pediatric brain stem gliomas

Green AL, Kieran MW. Pediatric brainstem gliomas: new understanding leads to potential new treatments for two very different tumors. Curr Oncol Rep. 2015;17:436.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11912-014-0436-7

Ostrom QT, Gittleman H, Liao P, Rouse C, Chen Y, Dowling J, et al. Central Brain Tumor Registry of the United States. Statistical Report: Primary Brain Tumors and central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2007-2011. Neuro Oncol. 2014;16 Suppl. 4:iv1-63.

https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/nou223

Frazier JL, Lee J, Thomale UW, Noggle JC, Cohen KJ, Jallo GI, et al. Treatment of diffuse intrinsic brainstem gliomas: failed approaches and future strategies. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2009;3:259-69.

https://doi.org/10.3171/2008.11.PEDS08281

Ramos A, Sepulveda J, Lagares A, Salvador E, Perez-Nu˜nez A,Sepulveda J, et al. Brainstem gliomas. Semin Ultrasound CT MRI. 2013;34:104-12.

https://doi.org/10.1053/j.sult.2013.01.001

Louis DN, Ohgaki H, Wiestler OD, Cavenee WK, editors. WHO Classification of Tumours of the Central Nervous System. Lyon: IARC; 2007.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-007-0278-6

Collins VP. Pathology of gliomas and developments in molecular testing. Clin Oncol. 2014;26:377-84.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clon.2014.04.025

Oka H, Utsuki S, Tanizaki Y, Hagiwara H, Miyajima Y, Sato K, et al. Clinicopathological features of human brainstem gliomas. Brain Tumor Pathol. 2013;30:1-7.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10014-012-0099-8

Grimm SA, Chamberlain MC. Brainstem glioma: a review. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2013;13:346.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-013-0346-3

Schumacher M, Schulte-Mönting J, Stoeter P, Warmuth-Metz M, Solymosi L. Magnetic resonance imaging compared with biopsy in the diagnosis of brainstem diseases of childhood: a multicenter review. J Neurosurg. 2007;106:111-9.

https://doi.org/10.3171/ped.2007.106.2.111

Dellaretti M, Touzet G, Reyns N, Dubois F, Gusmão S, Pereira JL, et al. Correlation among magnetic resonance imaging findings, prognostic factors for survival, and histological diagnosis of intrinsic brainstem lesions in children. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2011;8:539-43.

https://doi.org/10.3171/2011.9.PEDS1167

Cage TA, Samagh SP, Mueller S, Nicolaides T, Haas-Kogan D, Prados M, et al. Feasibility, safety, and indications for surgical biopsy of intrinsic brainstem tumors in children. Childs Nerv Syst. 2013;29:1313-9.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-013-2101-0

Sanai N, Wachhorst S, Gupta N, McDermott M. Transcerebellar sterotactic biopsy for lesions of the brainstem and peduncles under local anesthesia. Neurosurgery. 2008;63:461-8.

https://doi.org/10.1227/01.NEU.0000324731.68843.74

Hankinson TC, Campagna EJ, Foreman NK, Handler MH. Interpretation of magnetic resonance images in diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma: a survey of pediatric neurosurgeons. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2011 Jul;8:97-102.

https://doi.org/10.3171/2011.4.PEDS1180

Walker DA, Liu J, Kieran M, Jabado N, Picton S, Packer R, et al. CPN Paris 2011 Conference Consensus Group. A multi-disciplinary consensus statement concerning surgical approaches to low-grade: high-grade astrocytomas and diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas in childhood (CPN Paris 2011) using the Delphi method. Neuro Oncol. 2013;15:462-8.

https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/nos330

Puget S, Beccaria K, Blauwblomme T, Roujeau T, James S, Grill J, et al. Biopsy in a series of 130 pediatric diffuse intrinsic Pontine gliomas. Childs Nerv Syst. 2015;31:1773-80.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-015-2832-1

Kickingereder P, Willeit P, Simon T, Ruge MI. Diagnostic value and safety of stereotactic biopsy for brainstem tumors: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 1480 cases. Neurosurgery. 2013;72:873-81.

https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0b013e31828bf445

Conway AE, Reddick WE, Li Y, Yuan Y, Glass JO, Baker JN, et al. Occult post-contrast signal enhancement in pediatric diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma is the MRI marker of angiogenesis? Neuroradiology. 2014;56:405-12.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00234-014-1348-9

Laigle-Donadey F, Doz F, Jean-Yves D. Brainstem gliomas in children and adults. Curr Opin Oncol. 2008;20:662-7.

https://doi.org/10.1097/CCO.0b013e32831186e0

Poussaint TY, Kocak M, Vajapeyam S, Packer RI, Robertson RL, Geyer R, et al. MRI as a central component of clinical trials analysis in brainstem glioma: a report from the Pediatric Brain Tumor Consortium (PBTC). Neuro Oncol. 2011;13: 417-27.

https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noq200

Royo A, Utrilla C, Carceller F. Surgical management of brainstem-expanding lesions: the role of neuroimaging. Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 2013;34:153-73.

https://doi.org/10.1053/j.sult.2013.01.006

Klimo P Jr, Pai Panandiker AS, Thompson CJ, Boop FA, Qaddoumi I, Gajjar A, et al. Management and outcome of focal low-grade brainstem tumors in pediatric patients: the St. Jude experience. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2013;11:274-81.

https://doi.org/10.3171/2012.11.PEDS12317

Cavalheiro S, Yagmurlu K, da Costa MD, Nicácio JM, Rodrigues TP4, Chaddad-Neto F, et al. Surgical approaches for brainstem tumors in pediatric patients. Childs Nerv Syst. 2015;31:1815-40.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-015-2799-y

McAbee JH, Modica J, Thompson CJ, Broniscer A, Orr B, Choudhri AF, et al. Cervicomedullary tumors in children. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2015;16:357-66.

https://doi.org/10.3171/2015.5.PEDS14638

Jansen MH, Veldhuijzen van Zanten SE, Sanchez Aliaga E. Survival prediction model of children with diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma based on clinical and radiological criteria. Neuro Oncol. 2015;17:160-6.

https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/nou104

Branão L, Poussaint T. Pediatric brain tumors. Neuroimag Clin N Am. 2013;23:499-525.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nic.2013.03.003

Griessenauer CJ, Rizk E, Miller JH, Hendrix P, Tubbs RS, Dias MS, et al. Pediatric tectal plate gliomas: clinical and radiological progression, MR imaging characteristics, and management of hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2014;13:13-20.

https://doi.org/10.3171/2013.9.PEDS13347

Gass D, Dewire M, Chow L, Rose SR, Lawson S, Stevenson C, et al. Pediatric tectal plate gliomas: a review of clinical outcomes, endocrinopathies, and neuropsychological sequelae. J Neurooncol. 2015;122:169-77.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-014-1700-2

Pollack IF. Multidisciplinary management of childhood brain tumors: a review of outcomes, recent advances, and challenges. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2011;8:135-48.

https://doi.org/10.3171/2011.5.PEDS1178

Jansen MH, van Vuurden DG, Vandertop WP, Kaspers GJ. Diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas: a systematic update on clinical trials and biology. Cancer Treat Rev. 2012;38:27-35.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctrv.2011.06.007

Rizzo AE, Yu JS. Radiation therapy for glioma stem cells. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2015;853:85-110.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16537-0_6

Zaghloul MS, Eldebawy E, Ahmed S, Mousa AG, Amin A, Refaat A, et al. Hypofractionated conformal radiotherapy for pediatric diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG): a randomized controlled trial. Radiother Oncol. 2014;111:35-40.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radonc.2014.01.013

Janssens GO, Jansen MH, Lauwers SJ, Nowak PJ, Oldenburger FR, Bouffet E, et al. Hypofractionation vs conventional radiation therapy for newly diagnosed diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma: a matched-cohort analysis. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2013 Feb 1;85:315-20.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2012.04.006

Johnston DL, Keene D, Bartels U, Carret AS, Crooks B, Eisenstat D, et al. Patterns of enrollment of infants with central nervous system tumours on cooperative group studies: a report from the Canadian Pediatric Brain Tumour Consortium. J Neurooncol. 2010;99:243-9.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-010-0123-y

El-Shehaby AM, RedaWA, Abdel Karim KM, Emad Eldin RM, Esene IN. Gamma Knife radiosurgery for low-grade tectal gliomas. Acta Neurochir. 2015;157:247-56.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00701-014-2299-y

Ruge MI, Simon T, Suchorska B, Lehrke R, Hamisch C, Koerber F, et al. Stereotactic brachytherapy with iodine-125 seeds for the treatment of inoperable low-grade gliomas in children: long term outcome. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29:4151-9.

https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2011.37.3381

Ater JL, Zhou T, Holmes E, Mazewski CM, Booth TN, Freyer DR, et al. Randomized study of two chemotherapy regimens for treatment of low-grade glioma in young children: a report from the Children's Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30: 2641-7.

https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2011.36.6054

Koukourakis GV, Kouloulias V, Zacharias G, Papadimitriou C, Pantelakos P, Maravelis G, et al. Temozolomide with radiation therapy in high grade brain gliomas: pharmaceuticals considerations and efficacy; a review article. Molecules. 2009;14:1561-77.

https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules14041561

Cohen KJ, Heideman RL, Zhou T, Holmes EJ, Lavey RS, Bouffet E, et al. Temozolomide in the treatment of children with newly diagnosed diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas: a report from the Children's Oncology Group. Neuro Oncol. 2011;13:410-6.

https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noq205

Warren KE, Gururangan S, Geyer JR, McLendon RE, Poussaint TY, Wallace D, et al. A phase II study of O6-benzylguanine and temozolomide in pediatric patients with recurrent or progressive high-grade gliomas and brainstem gliomas: a Pediatric Brain Tumor Consortium study. J Neurooncol. 2012;106:643-9.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-011-0709-z

Bailey S, Howman A, Wheatley K, Wherton D, Boota N, Pizer B, et al. Diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma treated with prolonged temozolomide and radiotherapy results of a United Kingdom phase II trial (CNS 2007 04). Eur J Cancer. 2013;49:3856-62.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2013.08.006

Jalali R, Raut N, Arora B, Gupta T, Dutta D, Munshi A, et al. Prospective evaluation of radiotherapy with concurrent and adjuvant temozolomide in children with newly diagnosed diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2010;77:113-8.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2009.04.031

Kim CY, Kim SK, Phi JH, Lee MM, Kim IA, Kim IH, et al. A prospective study of temozolomide plus thalidomide during and after radiation therapy for pediatric diffuse pontine gliomas: preliminary results of the Korean Society for Pediatric Neuro-Oncology study. J Neurooncol. 2010;100:193-8.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-010-0157-1

Chassot A, Canale S, Varlet P, Puget S, Roujeau T, Negretti L, et al. Radiotherapy with concurrent and adjuvant temozolomide in children with newly diagnosed diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. J Neurooncol. 2012;106:399-407.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-011-0681-7

Sirachainan N, Pakakasama S, Visudithbhan A, Chiamchanya S, Tuntiyatorn L, Dhanachai M, et al. Concurrent radiotherapy with temozolomide followed by adjuvant temozolomide and cisretinoic acid in children with diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. Neuro Oncol. 2008;10:577-82.

https://doi.org/10.1215/15228517-2008-025

Sharp JR, Bouffet E, Stempak D, Gammon J, Stephens D, Johnston DL, et al. A multi-centre Canadian pilot study of metronomic temozolomide combined with radiotherapy for newly diagnosed paediatric brainstem glioma. Eur J Cancer. 2010;46:3271-9.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2010.06.115

Müller K, Schlamann A, Guckenberger M, Warmuth-Metz M, Glück A, Pietschmann S, et al. Craniospinal irradiation with concurrent temozolomide for primary metastatic pediatric high-grade or diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas. A first report from the GPOH-HIT-HGG Study Group. Strahlenther Onkol. 2014;190:377-81.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00066-013-0513-0

Bradley KA, Zhou T, McNall-Knapp R, Jakacki RI, Levy AS, Vezina G, et al. Motexafin-gadolinium and involved field radiation therapy for intrinsic pontine glioma of childhood: a Children's Oncology Group phase 2 study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2013;85:e55-60.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2012.09.004

Porkholm M, Valanne L, Lönnqvist T, Holm S, Lannering B, Riikonen P, et al. Radiation therapy and concurrent topotecan followed by maintenance triple anti-angiogenic therapy with thalidomide, etoposide, and celecoxib for pediatric diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2014;61:1603-9.

https://doi.org/10.1002/pbc.25045

Morales La Madrid A, Hashizume R, Kieran MW. Future clinical trials in DIPG: B bringing epigenetics to the clinic. Front Oncol. 2015;5:148.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2015.00148

Nobusawa S, Hirato J, Yokoo H. Molecular genetics of ependymomas and pediatric diffuse gliomas: a short review. Brain Tumor Pathol. 2014;31:229-33.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10014-014-0200-6

Diaz AK, Baker SJ. The genetic signatures of pediatric high grade glioma: no longer a one-act play. Semin Radiat Oncol. 2014;24:240-7.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semradonc.2014.06.003

Wang H, Xu T, Jiang Y, Xu H, Yan Y, Fu D, et al. The challenges and the promise of molecular targeted therapy in malignant gliomas. Neoplasia. 2015;17:239-55.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neo.2015.02.002

Haas-Kogan DA, Banerjee A, Kocak M, Prados MD, Geyer JR, Fouladi M, et al. Phase I trial of tipifarnib in children with newly diagnosed intrinsic diffuse brainstem glioma. Neuro Oncol. 2008;10:341-7.

https://doi.org/10.1215/15228517-2008-004

Pollack IF, Jakacki RI, Blaney SM, Hancock ML, Kieran MW, Phillips P, et al. Phase I trial of imatinib in children with newly diagnosed brainstem and recurrent malignant gliomas: a Pediatric Brain Tumor Consortium report. Neuro Oncol. 2007;9:145-60.

https://doi.org/10.1215/15228517-2006-031

Geyer JR, Stewart CF, Kocak M, Broniscer A, Phillips P, Douglas JG, et al. A phase I and biology study of gefitinib and radiation in children with newly diagnosed brain stem gliomas or supratentorial malignant gliomas. Eur J Cancer. 2010;46:3287-93.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2010.07.005

Pollack IF, Stewart CF, Kocak M, Poussaint TY, Broniscer A, Banerjee A, et al. A phase II study of gefitinib and irradiation in children with newly diagnosed brainstem gliomas: a report from the Pediatric Brain Tumor Consortium. Neuro Oncol. 2011;13:290-7.

https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noq199

Geoerger B, Hargrave D, Thomas F, Ndiaye A, Frappaz D, Andreiuolo F, et al. Innovative Therapies for Children with Cancer pediatric phase I study of erlotinib in brainstem glioma and relapsing/refractory brain tumors. Neuro Oncol. 2011;13:109-18.

https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noq141

Veringa SJ, Biesmans D, van Vuurden DG, Jansen MH, Wedekind LE, Horsman I, et al. In vitro drug response and efflux transporters associated with drug resistance in pediatric high grade glioma and diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. PLOS ONE.2013;8:e61512.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0061512

Mauffrey C. Paediatric brainstem gliomas: prognostic factors and management. J Clin Neurosci. 2006;13:431-7.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2005.05.015